neeeh.. sebagian bahan reading 2

PATTERN OF ORGANIZATION (TIME ORDER, LIST OF ITEMS, COMPARISON/CONTRAST, CAUSE AND EFFECT) AND SPEED READING

Patterns of Organization

Separating supporting points from main ideas is an important reading skill. The organization of the supporting details will help you understand how an author thinks. Detecting the patterns of organization of the major and minor details can help with comprehension and retention.

Time Order

Also known and chronological order, steps and stages, narration or sequence of events, in this pattern, ideas are presented in the order in which they occurred in time.

Questions Answered:

“When did it happen?”

“In what order did it happen?”

When Used:

Commonly used in anthropology, history, art history and political science.

It answers the questions relating to time.

Time order signal words

First, third…; next; then; finally; eventually; following this

Example:

The famous Leaning Tower of Pisa has been tilting for over 800 years, and recent improvements should allow it to continue tilting for another 300 more. On August 9, 1173, construction began on this well known Italian bell tower. Almost immediately, it began leaning because it was being erected on the soft silt of a buried riverbed. Between 1178 and 1360, work stopped and started two more times as workers tried to continue the project and figure out how to compensate for the tilt. Over the next six centuries, the tower’s lean continued to increase, although tourists were still allowed to visit. Then, in 1990, Italy’s prime minister feared the tower would collapse and closed it to the public. From 1999 to 2001, engineers excavated soil from beneath the tower. Now, the tower still leans out about 15 feet beyond its base, but it should remain stable for several more centuries.

Reference: Covington, Richard (2001) Smithsonian. “The Leaning Tower Straightens Up,” p41-47

List of Items

Also known as listing, series, addition and enumeration, the information listed may be items, facts, reasons, examples, features or characteristics.

Questions Answered:

“What examples support the main idea?”

“What proof is there?”

When Used:

Commonly used in history, art history, the social sciences and political science.

It answers the questions regarding the appropriate proof, back-up or support.

List of items signal words

And, too, in addition, moreover, or, also, furthermore, as well as, plus, in fact, moreover, besides.

Example

Many modern people are turning themselves into social victims. One example is a Tennessee woman who is suing McDonald’s because she was badly burned on the chin by a hot pickle in her hamburger. A Canadian woman is another example.

She wants to ban the South Park television show because her son Kenny is victimized by the show’s Kenny character, which is killed in each episode. A third example is a group of European and Australian women who want to ban urinals in men’s restrooms because the require men to stand in a way that suggests violence toward women. Another group argues that single people are victimized because society ignores them.

Reference: Leo, John. (2000) U.S. News and World Report. “Victims of the Year,” p24

Comparison and/or Contrast

The material is organized to emphasize the similarities and/or differences between two or more items or topics.

Readings answer the questions:

“How are two items similar?”

“How are two items different?”

When Used: All Disciplines

The items being considered usually fit into the same general category.

Comparison means

ü  what things have in common

ü  how items or concepts are alike

ü  the similarities between elements or ideas

Contrast means

ü  the differences between items or concepts

ü  how things are not alike

ü  distinctions between elements

Comparison and contrast signal words

ü  Similarly, like, the same as, compared to, in the same way, likewise…

ü  But, yet, on the other hand, however, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary...

Example

My two children are so different that it surprises me every day. For one thing, my older child is a girl, and my younger child is a boy. My daughter loves reading, going to the movies, and writing in her journal. My son, on the other hand, loves running, jumping, and swimming– anything that requires using energy. My daughter loves all different kinds of foods, but my son likes to eat only pizza. And while my son can’t go a day without watching some kind of sporting event on television, my daughter will only watch a baseball game if nothing else is on.

Cause and Effect

This pattern describes or discusses an event or action that is caused by another event or action. On occasion, this pattern is also referred to as result.

Readings answer the questions:

“Why did something happen?”

“What were the results of a particular event?”

When Used: All Disciplines

Cause and effect signal words

ü  because, for this reason, due to, cause, on account of, if this, then this…

ü  as a result, since, consequently, therefore, thus, in effect, resulting, and the outcome is...

There are four possible cause effect relationships:

ü  single cause - single effect

ü  single cause - multiple effects

ü  multiple causes - single effect

ü  multiple causes - multiple effects

Example

Smoking is the single most preventable risk factor for fatal illnesses in the United States. Indeed, cigarette smoking accounts for more deaths than all other drugs, car accidents, suicides, homicides, and fires combined. Further, nonsmokers who inhale smoke from other people’s cigarettes face an elevated risk for lung cancer and other illnesses related to the lungs, a fact that has given rise to a nonsmokers’ rights movement in the United States.

How to Learn Speed Reading

Time your current reading speed.

Not only will timing help you to tell if you're improving, but it will also keep you motivated.

·         You can break out a book and a stopwatch and either time how long it takes you to read a certain number of words on a page or find out how many words you read in a given amount of time.

·         An easier way to time yourself is to take an online reading speed test. There are plenty of these available: just enter "reading speed test" in your search engine. Many of these have reading comprehension tests, as well, so you can see how well you're understanding what you're reading.

·         Regardless of how you decide to time yourself, be sure to read at your normal speed during the timing, and time yourself on a few different pages - the average of your times should approximate your average reading speed.

Get rid of distractions.

Even if you think you read better when you have music playing or when you're in a crowded coffee house, you can probably increase your speed if you reduce distractions to a bare minimum. Try to find a solitary place to read, and turn off the TV, radio and cell phone.

ü  Even being in a room of people talking is distracting. If no solitary place is available, try using earplugs to block out any distractions around you.

Adjust reading speed depending on the material.

Often, we must trade off comprehension for speed, so an important part of increasing reading speed is deciding how thoroughly you need to comprehend a particular piece of writing. So before you even start reading, decide how fast you intend to go.

ü  If you're reading a newspaper article, chances are you just want to get the main ideas, and you can skim through the passages quite rapidly.

ü  If, however, you're reading a mathematics textbook or a demanding philosophical treatise - and you need to fully understand the material - you do not want to rush.

Learn to separate the wheat from the chaff with pre-reading.

No matter what you are reading, there is frequently a lot of "filler" that you can read quickly through or even skim over. With practice, you will be able to identify the most important parts of a book as you skim through it. When you get to such a passage, slow down.

ü  Before you begin a chapter or book, look over the entire piece very quickly. Try to find patterns of repeated words, key ideas, bold print and other indicators of important concepts. Then, when you actually do your reading you may be able to skim over large portions of the text, slowing only when you come to something you know is important.

Train yourself not to reread.

Most people frequently stop and skip back to words or sentences they just read to try to make sure they understood the meaning. This is usually unnecessary, but it can easily become a habit, and many times you will not even notice you're doing it.

ü  One exercise to help you avoid rereading is to take a sheet of paper or index card and drag it down the page as you read, covering each line once you've read it. Try to drag the card in a steady motion; start slowly, and increase your speed as you feel more comfortable.

Stop reading to yourself.

As you read you probably subvocalize, or pronounce the words to yourself. Almost everybody does it, although to different degrees: some people actually move their lips or say the words under their breath, while others simply say each word in their heads. Regardless of how you subvocalize, it slows you down.

ü  To break the habit, try to be conscious of it. When you notice yourself pronouncing words to yourself, try to stop doing it.

ü  Practice visualizing a word at the moment you see it, rather than confirming the word in your mind and then visualizing it.

ü  It may help to focus on key words and skip over others, or you may want to try humming to yourself or counting "1,2,3,4" repeatedly in order to prevent subvocalizing.

ü  One exercise to stop your lips from moving is to put a finger on your mouth and keep it there while you read.

Read with your hand.

Smooth, consistent eye motion is essential to speed reading. You can maximize your eyes' efficiency by using your hand to guide them. One such method is to simply draw your hand down each page as you read. You can also brush your hand under each line you read, as if you are brushing dust off the lines.

ü  Your eyes instinctively follow motion, and the movement of your hand serves to keep your eyes moving constantly forward.

ü  Note, however, that many speed reading instruction books warn off using a tracking member in speed reading as it inhibits the process.

Spend Less Time Switching. When you switch from a sentence to the next, your eyes move with the same speed backwards (right to left) as the do forwards (left to right). Notice and correct this. Try to minimize the gap whenever you notice it by instantaneously flitting your eyes to the next sentence.

ü  Practice the above point to get rid of distractions and focus on the book.

Practice reading blocks of words. Nearly everyone learned to read word-by-word or even letter-by-letter, but once you know the language, that's not the most efficient method of reading. Not every word is important, and in order to read quickly, you'll need to read groups of words - or even whole sentences or short paragraphs - instantaneously. The good news is you probably already do this to some extent: most people read three or four words at a time.

• Try focusing on the middle of the line while reading the entire line. Do not let any word take shape before moving on the next word. This causes confusion, and at the beginning, problems of not understanding are there. Usually after a month of vigorous practice there is enough practice to skip over many words without misunderstanding the text.
• Once you have mastered that, concentrate on the center of the page, not the line.

Practice and push yourself. While you may see some gains in speed the moment you start using these tips, speed reading is a skill that requires a lot of practice. Always push yourself to your comfort level and beyond - if you end up having to reread a section, it's not a big deal. Keep practicing regularly.

Time yourself regularly. After a week or so of practice, time yourself again. Do this regularly thereafter, and keep track of your improvement. Don't forget to pat yourself on the back every time your reading speed increases!

Have speed reading work sessions of 20 minutes with one book and one clear purpose. If you feel you still need more from a book, don’t go back to it until you’ve had a break.

Have a clear purpose for reading. Know what you want to get from a book before you start reading. Are you reading for pleasure (doing what pleases you) or for information?

• If you’re reading for information, set your purpose, which will either be
• to find specific information, or
• to discover its message, what it’s about.
• Have a SMART purpose for your reading. In business, people are often told to set a ‘SMART’ goal or purpose. This applies to reading too. SMART stands for: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Real (WIIFM), Time-bound (or timely).